1. 關於STREAM 的文章。
段，streams 裏的 sediments。
說河流裏改變landscape，主要通過erosion而不是weathering。
這裏有一道題是關於streams怎樣影響landscape。
第二段，streams裏的sediments有三種形式。
第三段，種是溶解在河水裏了，然後河水流到哪裡就帶著它去哪裡。
第四段，好像是講一些小部分沒有溶解在水裏的sediments，具體記不清楚了。
第五段，講在河床上較大塊的sediments。說這些平常都不怎麼動，在經歷大洪水的時候會被移動，所以很難被觀測。
2. native Canadian
開始講好多原始的資料都沒有得到很好的保存。歐洲人跑到加拿大後，那些資料都變得fragmented， 然後時間順序也搞混了。講到native people 怎樣記錄他們的生活和文化，都是由男人寫，被隔離起來，所以這些記錄都是建立在這些寫的人的基礎上，然後也限制去探望的人。所以歐洲人去了以後也搞不清楚，因為即使他們在那裏住很長時間，也不會有機會去瞭解。
然後說歐洲的native的影響在歐洲人沒去加拿大的時候就有了，因為native people使用很多goods都是歐洲產的。歐洲人到了以後都是在春天到秋天的這段時間搞農業，還講到了水資源，說道歐洲人搞了map都是根據河流資訊的，還搞了個什麼東西。Native people會遷移，根據不同的季節travel very long distance。
最後一段講歐洲人記錄的native people的生活和文化也不是非常準確。最開始他們用畫畫的方式記錄，但是這些都會收到個人想法的影響。即使後來用了照相機，也還是不怎麼準確，因為個人想法，角度還是影響這些記錄。
2. 學者研究北美居民的本來生活是比較困難的。因為據研究表明，很多native居民在真正接觸newcomer之前就已經在使用歐洲的goods 或者技術。大部分移民最初目的是要找資源。影響因素還有很多移民探險的人長時間跟本地居民居住生活；這些新移民和自己國家和親人隔離太久。
3. 原始人作畫用什麼工具
段講開始對原始藝術的理解有偏差，好像原來懷疑這些玩意兒都是God 或者神靈創作的。後來就一直這些原始的藝術品是用一種石頭工具製作的。然後給出幾個例子。後來提到了用了現代技術，chemical還有顯微鏡之類的。
4. 鳥的遷徙，途中經過撒哈拉沙漠和地中海，它們怎麼完成這麼長的距離。
新托福真題題源：Birds face longer migration due to climate change, experts warn
Migrating birds such as the garden warbler and whitethroat will face longer journeys because of climate change, experts warned today.
A team of scientists led by Durham University has demonstrated that while the birds' breeding ranges are likely to shift northwards, their wintering areas will not, thus increasing the length of their journeys by up to 250 miles. The study, published in the Journal of Biogeography, has serious implications for many of the birds returning this month to Britain to breed.
The research team used computer simulation models similar to those used by weather forecasters to analyse how climate change might affect the migration patterns of European Sylvia warblers.
Every year these tiny birds – some weighing as little as 12g – travel thousands of miles northwards from their African winter-quarters to breed in Europe and Asia. Up to 500 million birds undertake this epic journey to take advantage of the long summer days and glut of insect food in temperate latitudes.
But as climate change leads to rises in spring and summer temperatures, some of these long-distance migrants are responding by shifting their breeding ranges further north, making their return journey each spring even longer than before. In future, when they return to Africa in autumn, the predicted southward extension of the Sahara Desert may also eventually increase their travel distance.
Dr Stephen Willis of Durham University, who co-ordinated the study, stressed the problems this additional mileage will pose. "From 2071 to 2100, nine out of the 17 species we looked at are projected to face longer migrations, particularly birds that cross the Sahara desert. The added distance is a considerable threat," he said.
Different birds follow different migration strategies, with some species covering the distance in short hops. Others, such as the sedge warbler, fatten up and almost double their body weight before making the journey across the Sahara and Mediterranean Sea in a single leap. But whichever way they travel, longer journeys will make enormous demands on their energy resources, which they may not be able to meet.
Professor Rhys Green of the RSPB, who co-authored the research paper, believes that this increase in distance – though relatively small compared with the total journey the birds undertake – is likely to cause major problems. "Anything that makes those journeys longer or more dependent on vulnerable pit-stop habitats used for refuelling on migration could mean the difference between life and death," he warned.
There is evidence that short-term climatic effects have caused problems in the past. For example, the prolonged drought in the Sahel Zone of western Africa during the late 1960s led to a massive 90% fall in the British population of whitethroats in a single year, from 1968 to 1969. Although numbers later recovered, the species remains highly vulnerable to sudden environmental change.
Some species, however, may already be beginning to adapt their migration patterns as a result of climate change. The chiffchaff, which normally migrates to Iberia and North Africa rather than crossing the Sahara, now regularly overwinters in Britain, especially in the milder areas of the south and west. Meanwhile the German and Austrian populations of the blackcap, one of the species followed in the study, now migrate west instead of south to spend the winter here in the UK.
If other species can follow suit by changing their migration patterns they may be able to survive. "Some species may be able to adapt and change, for example by adopting shorter migration routes, if they can find enough food at the right time," said Willis.
"Bird migrations are incredible feats of stamina and endurance but, as temperatures rise and habitats change, birds will face their biggest challenge since the Pleistocene era."
5. 板塊漂移學說。板塊漂移學說提出之前，大家都認為地殼都是垂直運動。等到此學說提出後，很多邊緣學者承認，但是主流學者不承認，他們認為提出者只依靠了化石材料，並沒有說明物種差別。很多年後，新的證據被發現，才流行開來。
辭彙題：constitute = make up；eventually = at the end

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